Eve reached for the fruit and that is why we cannot have nice things. This grossly oversimplified opening statement, seemingly lacking in the seriousness the subject requires, is nonetheless a quite comprehensive summary of the frightening force that the Church’s teaching has on the social and legal standing of women’s rights. The author wishes that she could say “used to have”, but the position of Christianity, and especially the Vatican, is still remarkably strong when it comes to the decisions that are made on a governmental level and shaping societal norms.

Beside the infamous Bible quotes such as 1 Corinthians 14:34: “The women should keep silent in the churches,” the occasional headline-making statement from the Pope, or the almost pop culture icon of a debate when exactly life starts, there is a vast myriad of topics, theological studies, interpretations, and tangible, real-life examples that can give us insight into the moral hegemon that is Christianity with its complex organization.

Christianity: Catholicism, Orthodoxy & many more

The East-West Schism of 1054 was the formal split of Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, preceded by various disputes of theological and ecclesiastical nature. From the beginning of the Christian movement, the debates on the meaning of scriptures, the nature of the Holy Trinity, the ways and places of worship, or the character of leaders’ power, to name a few, were numerous and frequent, leading to many branches, sects, and groups loosely connected to the teachings of Jesus Christ.

Since the Great Schism between East and West, there was also the Reformation that began in 1517, initiated by Luther’s Ninety-five Theses, which saw the birth of Protestantism that currently has twelve major branches. A key predecessor to the protestant movement was the father of Hussitism, Jan Hus – a Czech philosopher and theologian who was burned at the stake for his revolutionary teachings in 1415. Christianity is a complex movement and a congregation of many groups that often hold distinct, even contrary, beliefs. Even within its own structure, Christianity cannot be considered a monolith.

To examine the effects of Christianity’s influence on women’s rights in Central-Eastern Europe, we are going to focus on the two major denominations – Catholic and Eastern Orthodox – and their official teachings as found in authoritative sources and the Bible (English Standard Version).

The Old Testament: The beginning of the sinful narrative

The holy book of Christianity has been the subject of extensive research and many interpretations, as well as (probably most importantly) multiple translations. According to the Christian Lingua portal, the Bible was written in three main languages: Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, then translated to Latin and then to 700 languages, with the New Testament translated to over 1500 languages, including more than 100 translations into English alone. It  is easy to infer that “lost in translation” is a severe understatement when describing what happened to the text, particularly passages and words that can have multiple meanings depending on the social and historical context.

Keeping all the above in mind, no matter how deeply we dive into various interpretations of Bible verses and their genuine intentions, the most important aspect is how they were and continue to be utilized to determine and justify women’s position in society and the Church itself.

Genesis, in detailing the origins of the world and the human beings, paints an image of the garden of Eden, a paradise in which man and woman were designed to live, oblivious to any hardships and suffering. Under one condition: they are forbidden to taste the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Eve is enticed to rebel by a serpent, offers the fruit to Adam, and seals the banishment from Eden, while being cursed by God:

“To the woman he said, “I will surely multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children. Your desire shall be contrary to your husband, but he shall rule over you.” (Genesis 3:16).

The above mentioned translations and interpretations come into play here.

The tree is either understood as the source of knowledge, of moral truths, therefore good and evil, or the knowledge of everything, and also as the cause of the death penalty, according to Jewish tradition. There is not even a consensus on what exactly is the serpent and the fruit. The most common images in Christian iconography are of a snake and an apple. Eve reached for the knowledge of everything, of good and evil, she reached to intertwine the two and made Adam her accomplice in losing the eternal paradise.

The original sin of the wretched woman tainted the rest of humanity forever and made women suffer excruciating pain in childbirth. Built-in suffering is framed as a punishment, and we are expected to endure it. According to the official statement from the Polish Ombudsman, only 14% of deliveries in 2022 took place with epidural anesthesia, which is reimbursed by the National Health Fund. Epidural is funded by the government, however, it is not widely available mainly due to a lack of professionals being able to administer the anesthesia.

“The inability to actually administer anesthesia when it is legally guaranteed may indicate a violation of the patient’s rights to respect for dignity and intimacy, pain treatment and the right to health services.”, states the Ombudsman.

The situation in the rest of Europe is not much better. Even though the right to relief from pain is theoretically ensured, there are many examples of women not being properly informed about the means available to them, of being denied the painkiller, or of being in a situation where epidural is only available in the biggest hospitals in major cities. Furthermore, the argument that giving birth naturally “as God intended” is a superior version remains alive and well. God (sic!) forbid we forget about the mythical punishment for curiosity and refusal to live in a blessed oblivion. The expectation of carrying Eve’s guilt is present not only in physical pain but also in the responsibility placed on women for men’s “stumbling.”

Victim blaming in cases of sexual assault is the most blatant of examples. In theory and on paper, women have the right to not suffer during childbirth and are not responsible for men’s behavior. In reality, the apple is still stuck in Adam’s throat, and he is the legislator with executive power.

Before Eve had the opportunity to commit the first ever sin and be burdened with pain and subordination to her husband, she was created as a helper and companion to the first man and was made from his rib. Somehow Adam’s need for companionship and help in fulfilling his assignment of ruling over the world is not interpreted as his weakness: there would be no man without a woman.

It is usually understood as the woman’s inferiority and the need to be thankful for her existence to the man, even though one of the interpretations of Eve’s origin is also one of equality: both, man and woman have the same nature, the same flesh ruled by the same mechanisms, and the same origins as they were both created through God’s will, which is supported by 1 Corinthians 11:12: “For as woman was made from man, so man is now born of woman. And all things are from God.”

However, the teachings of apostles and letters to Christian communities included in the Bible leave little room for debate about how they were interpreted: “Let a woman learn quietly with all submissiveness. I do not permit a woman to teach or to exercise authority over a man; rather, she is to remain quiet. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor.” (1 Timothy 2:11-14) or “Neither was man created for woman, but woman for man.” (1 Corinthians 11:9). Eve reached for the fruit, therefore no university nor separate bank account and voting rights for you.

The narrative of servitude, inferiority and foul judgment is an especially dangerous tool as it provides justification for abuse, omission and restriction of rights and freedom.

The New Testament: The beginning of not-so-subversive narrative

The model of perfect femininity in the figure of Virgin Mary and the picture of a godly womanhood painted by The New Testament, served and continue to function as a lens through which suffrage and emancipation have been caricatured and villainized. Even though Christ’s teachings can be viewed as revolutionary for the time period, with the gospel of love and rebellion against earthly shackles, they did little to drastically change the outlook on women’s role in society and religious movements, with the exception of the story about Mary, Martha’s sister, whom Jesus embraced for listening to his lecture instead of serving other guests (Luke 10:38-42), and Mary Magdalene, one of Christ’s disciples.

It seems like the Church believes that through Marianism it gets to cherish all women; however Bujwidowa (Polish feminist and activist, 19. century) rightly noticed:

“Christianity, contrary to popular belief, had little impact on the significant emancipation of women. (…) Yet the blood of female Christian martyrs flowed abundantly in defense of Christianity, and 40% of the tombstones in the Roman catacombs belong to women.” (Bujwidowa 23).

Women also played a significant role in keeping religious traditions alive during the unimaginable turmoil that plagued Europe for most of the millennia. Yet, they are still not seen as equal, merely as servants of a vague cause.

Women’s place in the Church

“But I want you to understand that the head of every man is Christ, the head of a wife is her husband, and the head of Christ is God.” (1 Corinthians 11:3)

This structure of power descending from God to Christ, from Christ to man, and from man to woman is very much responsible for the lack of equality in Christian institutions. In both Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, women cannot become ordained priestesses. According to the Orthodox interpretation, “the ministry of woman does not lie in functions; it resides in her nature.” (Jovkovska 113) Similarly, the Catholic Church sees women’s assignment within the religion exactly like it sees the worshiped Mother of God – as a mother – nourishing and suffering protector, passive follower in wait for instructions from men leading everybody to the higher purpose.

Seeing women as unfit for principal roles in churches was subsequently translated to them being unable to hold certain roles related to other executive functions. Religious teachings and societal norms intertwine and legitimize one another. (Kupari and Vuola 2) Women in churches can be saints, converted sinners, missionaries, nuns, devoted theologians or mothers and wives raising never-ending flocks of new believers, yet they are excluded from joining the formal hierarchy that holds the real power over the institution.

Aside from the practically unknown cases of revisiting the subject of women’s ordination such as the consultation between the Orthodox and Old Catholic Theologians in 1996, which closed with the statement that “there are no theological objections to the ordination of women” (Kupari and Vuola 80), the official standing is such to exclude them from participating in priesthood. Unlike Catholicism, Orthodoxy does not have a central authority responsible for interpreting the rules and dogmas. Both agree, however, that maleness is essential for priesthood because of Christ: priests stand in the place of Jesus, who was male, therefore priesthood is restricted for men (Kupari and Vuola 5).

The Church’s stance on the topics of sexuality, gender, contraception, abortion and divorce further encapsulates women in the traditional family unit and the role of a pure mother and an obedient wife. Central and Eastern Europe only knows one theocracy – the Vatican City. The countries are secular, with the church and state officially separated and religious freedom guaranteed. It does not mean there are no influences between the two institutions. Far from it.

With Church’s special role in society, it still has a significant amount of influence to shape societal norms and subsequently the law, as very well described by Marie Juul Petersen in her briefing paper “Freedom of religion or belief and women’s rights”:

“Religious institutions are powerful actors in many contexts, not only at community level but also at regional and national levels, contributing to and influencing decision making processes in political, economic and public life, whether formally or informally. In most religious traditions, women do not participate in religious institutions on an equal footing with men, and the possibilities for holding religious leadership positions are limited, if they exist at all. This means that women have fewer opportunities to influence decision-making internally in the institution, and in political, economic and public life more broadly.” (Petersen 8)

Even though the freedom of religion is constituted, the freedom from religious influence is not.

Decisions in the Church are made by men to determine rules that apply to women and the irony of the situation seems to be lost on popes in particular. Pope Francis’ remarks on disciplining children and the selfishness of not having offspring made it to mainstream news channels  and caused an uproar. Having and raising children is considered a womanly affair and responsibility, as if the conception and subsequent family can be achieved without any contribution of men. “The theology of the body identifies the nature of women with being mothers, while the nature of men is not said to be fathers. For men it seems to be sufficient to be just men!” (Keller 9)

With such statements and theological interpretations of gender roles in the world of necessary dual-income households, women enjoying pretty recent and not at all completed emancipation, men wanting to participate in family life, environmental crisis, and many more issues, the Church presents itself as an institution unwilling to admit that some of the ancient values it holds cannot be sustained on a larger scale and can simply be harmful to the social and economic well-being of Its members.

John Paul II’s “Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the collaboration of men and women in the church and in the world” dated on May 31st, 2004, opens with the following words: “The Church, expert in humanity, has a perennial interest in whatever concerns men and women.” It can be said that there is not much doubt within the organization about being in the position of authority when it comes to the human condition.

The collaboration mentioned in the title serves “the recognition of the difference between man and woman” and frames the discourse around sex, gender, and non-hetero normative relationships around denying any differences between human beings, be they biological or societal, while stating that “tendency is to emphasize strongly conditions of subordination in order to give rise to antagonism: women, in order to be themselves, must make themselves the adversaries of men. Faced with the abuse of power, the answer for women is to seek power. This process leads to opposition between men and women, in which the identity and role of one are emphasized to the disadvantage of the other, leading to harmful confusion regarding the human person, which has its most immediate and lethal effects in the structure of the family.”

The letter leans heavily on the most traditional understanding and absolute dichotomy of men and women, emphasizing women’s servitude role in the world: “Among the fundamental values linked to women’s actual lives is what has been called a “capacity for the other”. Although a certain type of feminist rhetoric makes demands “for ourselves”, women preserve the deep intuition of the goodness in their lives of those actions which elicit life, and contribute to the growth and protection of the other.”

This document is perfectly clear on the standing of John Paul II as Head of the Catholic Church regarding women’s role in society as well as the Church itself, for in a conclusion it says:

“(…) the reservation of priestly ordination solely to men does not hamper in any way women’s access to the heart of Christian life. Women are called to be unique examples and witnesses for all Christians of how the Bride is to respond in love to the love of the Bridegroom.”

The language of being equal in Christ but different in duties has a strong indication of discrimination and superficial inclusion. It is difficult to maintain the benefit of the doubt while not seeing such official statements as a blatant and purposeful misinterpretation of feminism and emancipation. There are Christian feminists and they are in the Church itself. Feminism, similarly to Christianity, is not a monolith with its many waves and branches. The point is to give women the voice and the choice – both are denied and their validity questioned by Christian authorities.

Conclusion

Christianity is Europe’s largest religion, with teachings reaching the continent as early as the first century CE, infiltrating every aspect of life, from art, through the educational system to social norms, subsequently influencing politics and legislation. Knowing the origins of a situation allows us to better understand and change it. A photo illustrating this essay  depicts a mural near the ruins of the Teutonic Order’s castle in Toruń, Poland, from the 14th century. The red lightning was sprayed on during the 2020 protests against further restrictions on abortion law.

The Teutonic Order, also known as The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, is a Catholic religious institution established around 1190 as a military crusading society. The baptism of Polish ruler Mieszko I in 996 was a strategic move to form an alliance with Bohemians and subsequently, the very powerful Vatican, instead of Germans, who posed a greater threat of forced Christianization, than the advantage of a peaceful, mutually beneficial union. This is just one example of religion’s influence and its role on the state and cultural scale. The time when baptisms were used as a political tool has passed. The time when the Church has a say in politics is very much now.

And everything is political when you are a woman.

Bibliography:

• The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. ESV® Text Edition: 2016.
• Bujwidowa, Kazimiera. Czy kobieta powinna mieć te same prawa co mężczyzna? Kraków, 1909.
• Jovkovska, Aneta. Is There Discrimination Against Women by the Orthodox Church in the Republic of North Macedonia?, OCCASIONAL PAPERS ON RELIGION IN EASTERN EUROPE XLI, 6, St. Clement of Ohrid Faculty of Theology, Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia, 2021.
• Kupari, Helena. Vuola, Elina. Orthodox Christianity and Gender,Dynamics of Tradition, Culture and Lived Practice, New York, 2020.
• Petersen, Juul Marie. FREEDOM OF RELIGION OR BELIEF AND  WOMEN’S RIGHTS. LEAVING NO ONE BEHIND: A SERIES OF BRIEFING PAPERS ON FREEDOM  OF RELIGION OR BELIEF AND THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS.  BRIEFING PAPER # 4 The Danish Institute for Human Rights, Copenhagen, 2021.
• Heller, Karin , Women And The Catholic Church: Turning Point in Pope Francis’ Pontificate? Theology Faculty Scholarship. Paper 5., Whitworth University, Spokane WA, 2019.
• Pelizzari, Noemi. The Catholic Church’s influence on women’s conditions and lifestyle in Europe. An historical work starting from the Early Modern Age, Venice, 2022
• John Paul II, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the collaboration of men and women in the church and in the world, Vatican, 2004
• Madigan, Patricia. Freedom of Religion, Belief and Gender – a Catholic Perspective, commissioned by the Australian Human Rights Commission for its research and consultation project on Freedom of Religion and Belief in the 21st Century, pp 5-6,17-19, 2010
• https://bip.brpo.gov.pl/pl/content/rpo-dostep-do-znieczulenia-porod-mz-odpowiedz
• Christodoulou, Kyriaki. The position of women in the Church,
• https://orthodoxtimes.com/the-position-of-women-in-the-church/, Orthodox Times, 2020

Edits by:

• Kristýna Komárková
• Emma Mayhood